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1. Awareness of strategic partnership and national interests

The view of domestic and foreign scholars is that the term “strategic partnership” includes “partner” and “strategy” combined. Partnership is understood as a relationship with a higher degree of cohesion than a normal relationship, while strategy implies a long-term close cooperation. The concept of strategic partnership is said to have been popular since the end of the Cold War (1991). The need to form strategic partnerships continues to increase in the context of the current trend of international cooperation and integration playing a leading role.

There is a discrepancy in the interpretation of the concept of strategic partnership between the West and the East. The reason for that difference is from the perspective of the field of cooperation. If the West focuses on security, the East has a broader view including a diverse range of areas of cooperation because “strategic partnerships are often comprehensive, covering all aspects of the bilateral (economic, cultural, political, security) relationship, and partners are committed to maintaining the partnership for the long term”(1).

Thus, if interpreted, the concept of strategic partnership from the Western perspective, it is somewhat narrower in the field of cooperation between the parties. However, the Western understanding implies that the parties have a higher bond in the sense of an “alliance”. In general, no matter which way it is understood, a strategic partnership definitely requires a tighter bond through more cooperation mechanisms or specific legal documents, as opposed to a normal relationship which does not have the same requirements.

In Vietnam, there is still no consensus on the general concept or features of a strategic partner. There are also opinions that a “comprehensive partnership” and “comprehensive strategic partnership” are each a form of strategic partnership. Regardless of the form, its nature is to indicate an important development milestone in the history of relations between Vietnam and other countries. It also implies that Vietnam highly appreciates its relationship with this country or that its “an important cooperative relationship that is both oriented towards specific goals and implies a desire for a long-term relationship”(2). This topic needs more time for further research, thereby gradually perfecting the concept in the coming time.

The importance and promotion of relations with partners in general and strategic partners in particular is clearly demonstrated through the practice of implementing foreign policies, as well as the Party’s orientation on “strengthening strategic cooperation and dialogue with many partners; upgrading bilateral relations with a number of countries into strategic partners and comprehensive cooperation partners; more deeply, substantively and effectively developing cooperation (3).

The practice of international relations shows that when establishing a relationship, the subjects are interested in the benefits of cooperation, and how to cooperate to bring the best benefits. In other words, benefits are always the most important factor in cooperation, especially for strategic partnerships. In fact, national interests are paramount, but it is also necessary to clearly define private interests and take into account common interests in international relations, especially regarding strategic partnerships. However, the benefits related to sovereignty, territory, and survival of the regime cannot be “traded off”. As for other interests, it is also necessary to consider the common interests of international relations stakeholders before they can cooperate with each other in the long run.

Regarding this issue, there are certain differences between the theoretical schools of thought on international relations. Realism emphasizes the absoluteness of national sovereignty and interests. In other words, sovereignty and national interests here come first. National interests are closely related to the foreign policies of each country. It is the “key guideline” for foreign policies and vice versa.

However, the liberalism’s thesis is quite different from realism’s view in that the national interest here is broader, beyond the realm of security and power. The national interest is the goal for which all countries aim. That has shaped international relations with many diverse forms on the basis of such interweaving interests. The explanation from the field highlights the important role of economics when determining national interests, beyond the general field of politics. The process of market expansion and international economic integration has contributed to the bond of cooperation between countries and therefore the benefits between countries are also intertwined in many different fields. Liberalism believes in the capacity of countries to harmonize their interests. Some other schools of theory have their own arguments, views, and methodologies. Constructivism emphasizes that social identity is an important factor related to interests, while Marxism believes that the related interests are associated with class issues.

From the author’s point of view, cooperation and benefits are the subject of the relationship in general and the strategic partnership in particular. Cooperation in strategic partnership can be understood at a deeper level of cooperation though cooperative mechanisms to achieve the set goals. When establishing international relations with the outside world, all countries need to consider cooperation and benefits achieved on a win-win basis. Cooperation usually has a positive connotation, that is, there is a joint effort to achieve some purposes or benefits. In international relations or in strategic partnerships, cooperation can be divided into different fields related to politics, security, economics, culture, society etc... In terms of level, cooperation can be divided into high, medium, and low level. Therefore, cooperation is manifested in many forms, levels, scopes, space, and time. Typical forms of cooperation are joint action, collaboration or, at a higher level, alliances, or strategic partnerships.

Like many countries in the world, Vietnam has always paid attention to enhancing cooperation and promoting an increasingly substantive strategic partnership on the basis of maintaining its national interests, but that benefit also needs to consider the common interest factor. The issue of national interests has always been placed on top in foreign affairs and has been concretized and oriented in Party documents over the different periods with the goal of “ensuring the supremacy of nation-people interests, on the basis of fundamental principles of international law, equality and mutual benefit”(4).

2. Historically Vietnam - Malaysia relationship experienced ups and downs

Since feudal times, Vietnam and Malaysia had carried-out trade ties via the sea. After Malaysia gained independence in 1957, it established diplomatic relations with the government of the Republic of Vietnam. After that, Malaysia has reduced its relationship with this government, step by step seeking opportunities to establish a relationship with the Government of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam. On March 30, 1973, Vietnam and Malaysia officially established diplomatic relations. Malaysia was also the first ASEAN member to recognize the Vietnamese Government in 1975.

In order to build a solid foundation and aim to take advantage of opportunities for cooperation between the two countries, Vietnam sent a delegation to Malaysia led by Deputy Foreign Minister Phan Hien and opened the Vietnamese Embassy in Kuala Lumpur (July 1977), while the Malaysian side opened an embassy in Hanoi. This was followed by visits to Malaysia by Foreign Minister Nguyen Duy Trinh (January 1978) and Prime Minister Pham Van Dong (October 1978). However, the Vietnam-Malaysia relationship has been strained since 1979 because of disagreements on the settlement of the Cambodia issue. Malaysia is an ASEAN member state that voiced opposition to Vietnam at ASEAN forums and conferences, but still maintained economic ties to a certain extent.

Towards the end of the 1980s, Vietnam and Malaysia continued to adjust their foreign policies with Vietnam prioritizing relations with Southeast Asian countries. Malaysia also didn’t want the Cambodia issue to hinder regional cooperations in general and relations with Vietnam in particular, while Vietnam also completely withdrew its volunteer troops from Cambodia in 1989.

Malaysia also showed goodwill in promoting relations between the two countries by the fact that in June 1989, their Prime Minister declared his support for the slogan “turning Indochina from a battlefield into a market”; committing to aid Vietnam in economic development; allowing Malaysians to enter Vietnam and loosening visas for Vietnamese delegations; reopening the Kuala Lumpur - Ho Chi Minh City flight route (September 1990). To foster more friendships, Vietnam has organized visits to Malaysia, including a visit by General Vo Nguyen Giap (July 1990).

After the collapse of the socialist countries in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union, the situation around the world and in the region underwent profound changes, along with the signing of the Paris Agreement on Cambodia (September 1991), Malaysia’s foreign policies shift from West to East has had a positive impact on the relationship between the two countries. Vietnam and Malaysia have organized several official visits to each other’s countries: the Malaysian Deputy Prime Minister visited Vietnam, Prime Minister Vo Van Kiet visited Malaysia (January and July 1992), Malaysian Prime Minister Mahathir visited Vietnam (April 1992), which has contributed to enhancing understanding and opening up many opportunities for cooperation in the future.

Following that, Vietnam and Malaysia conducted a series of mutual visits. On the Vietnamese side, notably, there was a visit paid by General Secretary Do Muoi (March 1994) with the aim of promoting bilateral cooperation via the external party channel, establishing a relationship between our Party and the ruling party of Malaysia (United Malaysian National Organization - UMNO), as well as lobbying the Malaysian side to support Vietnam’s participation in ASEAN; Defense Minister Doan Khue (November 1994) and Interior Minister (since 1998 renamed the Ministry of Public Security) Bui Thien Ngo (December 1994) to orient defense - security cooperation. On the Malaysian side, there were visits by the Secretary-General of UMNO (July 1995) to strengthen the party-to-party channel; King Sultan Salahuddin Abdul Aziz’ visit (December 1995) contributed to strengthening relations between the two countries; Malaysia’s Deputy Minister of Home Affairs’ visit (December 1995) created a premise for security cooperation in the future.

These visits have brought real benefits to Vietnam and Malaysia. The two sides have signed agreements and memorandums of understanding, such as: Agreement on Investment Promotion and Protection (1992), Maritime Agreement (1992), Agreement on Economic, Scientific and Technical Cooperation (1992), Agreement on Cooperation in Posts and Telecommunications (1992), Trade Agreement (1992), Bilateral Payment Agreement between the State Bank of Vietnam and the National Bank of Malaysia (March 1993), Agreement on Cooperation in Science, Technology and Environment (December 1993), Agreement on Tourism Cooperation (April 1994), Agreement on Cultural Cooperation (March 1995), Agreement on Avoiding Double Taxation (September 1995); Memorandum of Understanding (July 1995), Memorandum of Understanding on Malaysia’s aid to Vietnam of RM1.72 million (equivalent to US$700,000) to develop the rubber industry; agreement on oil and gas exploration and production in the overlapping area between the two countries.

Along with the establishment of the Friendship Association of the two countries (February 1994), the Vietnam - Malaysia Joint Committee (September 1995). Vietnam - Malaysia relations have also been enhanced in the channel of multilateral cooperation through international and regional forums, especially after Vietnam joined ASEAN (1995).

In order to enhance understanding and diversify fields of cooperation, the two countries have maintained regular visits between the two countries. On the Vietnamese side, there were visits to Malaysia paid by Minister of Culture and Information Tran Hoan on the occasion of the first Vietnam-Malaysia Joint Committee Conference on information (March 1996); Secretary of the Party Central Committee Hong Ha (May 1996) on the occasion of the 50th anniversary of the establishment of UMNO; National Assembly Chairman Nong Duc Manh (September 1996); Minister of Industry and Chairman of the Vietnam - Malaysia Friendship Association Dang Vu Chu (September 1997); Prime Minister Phan Van Khai on the occasion of the Informal Summit of ASEAN countries (December 1997); President Tran Duc Luong (March 1998); Prime Minister Phan Van Khai on the occasion of attending the summit of the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation Forum (November 1998); Deputy Head of the Central Committee for Thought and Culture Ha Hoc Hoi on the occasion of the 53rd UMNO Party Congress (June 1999), etc.

On the Malaysian side, numerous delegations visited Vietnam such as the visit of Prime Minister Mahathir (March 1996); Secretary General of UMNO on the occasion of attending the 8th Congress of the Communist Party of Vietnam (July 1996); Prime Minister Mahathir on the occasion of the 6th ASEAN Summit in Vietnam (December 1998); Speaker of the Malaysian House of Representatives Tun Mohamed Zaja on the occasion of attending the Advisory Conference of the General Assembly of the ASEAN Inter-Parliamentary Organization (AIPO) in Vietnam (March 3, 1999).

Entering the year 2000, the economic and political situation in the world and the region underwent many changes, having both positive and negative impacts on the relations between the two countries. The region’s economy recovered positively after the [previous decade’s] financial crisis, although there were still many potential risks. ASEAN admitted Cambodia (full convergence of 10 ASEAN countries). Both Vietnam and Malaysia are well aware of the importance of the cooperative relations between the two countries in ensuring national interests. The duality of interests between the two countries is more diverse and flexible constituting many different forms, both in bilateral and multilateral relations.

To take advantage of the duality of nation-people interests, Vietnam and Malaysia have increased the exchange of delegations at all levels. Specifically, Vietnam sent delegations to visit Malaysia such as the visit by Vice Chairman of the Central Inspection Commission Nguyen Thi Doan on the occasion of the 55th UMNO Party Congress (June 2001); Deputy Minister of Trade Luong Van Tu on the occasion of the Informal Meeting of ASEAN Economic Ministers (July 2002); Deputy Prime Minister Nguyen Tan Dung (August 2002); National Assembly Chairman Nguyen Van An (February 2002); President Tran Duc Luong on the occasion of the 13th Non-Aligned Movement Summit (February 2003). In particular, during Prime Minister Phan Van Khai’s visit to Malaysia (April 2004), the two countries issued a “Joint Statement on the Framework of a Comprehensive Partnership in the 21st Century”.

This was followed by visits by Prime Minister Nguyen Tan Dung on the occasion of the 50th Anniversary of Malaysia’s Independence Day (from August 30 to September 1, 2007); President Truong Tan Sang (September 2011); Vice President Nguyen Thi Doan on the occasion of the Global Summit in Malaysia (June 2013).

The Malaysian side also sent delegations such as the one led by King Alhaj Abdul (December 2002); Foreign Minister Syed Hamid Albar (March 2006); Minister of Industry and Trade Muhyiddin Yassin (July 2008); Foreign Minister Rais Yatim (November 2008); President of the Senate (January 2009); King Mizan Zainal Abidin Ibni.

Al-Marhum (March 2009); Prime Minister Najib Razak attended the ASEAN Summit (April 2010); King Abdul Halim Mu’adzam Shah (September 2013). Significantly during the official visit to Vietnam by Malaysian Prime Minister Najib Tun Razak (April 2014), the two sides discussed and agreed on many important issues on strengthening bilateral and multilateral cooperation.

To promote the point of mutual-benefits, the two sides held the first meeting of the Joint Committee on Trade between the two Ministries of Economy (November 2009) and the second meeting of the Vietnam - Malaysia Trade Joint Committee at the ministerial level (March 2013). Trade turnover between Vietnam and Malaysia maintained its growth momentum after 2000 from USD 798.4 million (2000) to USD 808 million (2001) and USD 927 million (2002). Bilateral trade turnover increased sharply in the later period.

Investment cooperation is considered to have transformed in both quantity and quality since the mid-1990s. In 1990, Malaysia just started to invest in Vietnam with a small project related to incense sticks, with USD 100,000 of capital. In 1995 alone, Malaysia had 12 investment projects with a total capital of USD 96 million”(6). The number of projects and the amount of investment capital increased significantly in the later period.

3. Effective cooperation in many fields brings practical benefits

Firstly, the cooperative relationship developed firmly and comprehensively in many regards with increasingly effective and substantive results. Vietnam - Malaysia relations have witnessed many positive changes in many aspects of cooperation, especially since the establishment of the strategic partnership. Some prominent areas of cooperation in the bilateral relationship are politics - diplomacy, defense - security and trade - investment. The results of cooperation between the two countries have gradually become profound, bringing practical benefits, effectively serving the cause of national construction and development.

Secondly, cooperation is constantly being strengthened through various forms and via political-diplomatic channels. Above all, Vietnam and Malaysia maintain high-level visits, including two visits to Vietnam by the Prime Minister of Malaysia, namely a visit by Mahathir (August 2019) and Malaysian Prime Minister Ismail (March 2022).

In the context of the Covid-19 pandemic, Vietnam and Malaysia held a phone call between Vietnamese Prime Minister Nguyen Xuan Phuc and Malaysian Prime Minister Muhyiddin (June 2020). In addition, the two sides regularly conduct bilateral meetings or meet on the sidelines of international and regional forums.

Thirdly, continued strengthening of the increasingly solid defense-security relationship. Vietnam and Malaysia are interested in promoting cooperation in both bilateral and multilateral channels. The visits of leaders and officials of the two countries take place often, thereby opening opportunities for new channels in regard to defense - security cooperation.

Fourthly, maintaining a fairly stable increase in trade - investment in the context of the new situation. Cooperation on trade-investment continues to be a bright spot in the Vietnam-Malaysia strategic partnership over the recent period with an impressive two-way trade turnover (increasing steadily) up to the time of the outbreak of the Covid-19 pandemic.

However, in 2021, the bilateral trade turnover of the two countries has gradually increased to about USD 13.9 billion (according to statistics from the Trade Department - Vietnam Embassy in Malaysia), while investment cooperation continues to increase in both quantity and quality.

Fifthly, overcoming difficult periods, gradually regaining momentum for labor cooperation, as well as in other fields. After a period of hiatus heavily affected by the Covid-19 pandemic, up to today, labor cooperation has been restarted. The relevant ministries and sectors of the two countries have signed a Memorandum of Understanding on recruitment, employment, and labor repatriation (replacing the Memorandum of Understanding from 2015), and at the same time negotiated to prepare to bring legal workers to the Malaysian market. The fields of cooperation were also negatively affected by the Covid-19 pandemic but are recovering well, especially in the fields of tourism and cultural exchange.

In addition to the above results, the cooperative relationship between the two countries still faces some difficulties and limitations such as: until now, there have not yet been new developments in the relations between the two countries since the establishment of the strategic partnership; high-level visits have not yet taken place on both sides that contribute to increasing the cohesion of the two countries’ strategic partnership; not yet achieved the target of bilateral turnover set out in the first stage (15 billion USD in 2020), large-scale investment projects are minimal; there has been reduced efficiency of labor cooperation and exchange activities between the two countries...

The main reason for the restrictions is the rapidly changing international and regional situation, especially since the Covid-19 pandemic broke out in 2020, seriously affecting all aspects of international political life. The Vietnam - Malaysia strategic partnership was also inevitably negatively impacted by the Covid-19 pandemic in the fields of politics - diplomacy, defense - security, trade - investment, labor and other fields. In addition, the differences in ideology, political institutions, culture, language, history, etc., also have some impact on the development of the strategic partnership between the two countries. Vietnam and Malaysia have slowly been trying to overcome these difficulties in order to narrow the gaps and enhance mutual understanding.

Overall, the implementation of the Vietnam - Malaysia Strategic Partnership over the past years has contributed in the following aspects:

(i) Contributing to maintaining an environment of peace and stability in the region, creating favorable conditions for the construction and defense of the Fatherland. This contribution is shown through both bilateral and multilateral channels of cooperation, especially at forums and conferences of ASEAN. Results have been achieved in many fields of cooperation, especially politics - diplomacy and defense - security.

(ii) Expanding cooperation in more directions, especially in the fields of politics - diplomacy, defense - security and trade - investment. The process of implementing the Strategic Partnership has been seriously implemented by both sides and has yielded remarkable initial results. Vietnam and Malaysia continue to aim to realize the full potential of cooperation between the two countries in the coming time.

(iii) Actively support in participating and building the ASEAN Community. Thanks to the close coordination between the two countries, the process of joining ASEAN became more favorable. Vietnam and Malaysia are both members that play key roles in building the ASEAN Community over the past years and will continue to do in the coming time according to the roadmap of the ASEAN Community Vision for 2025.

(iv) There is more sharing and closer coordination in handling regional and international “hot” issues. Today, the international and regional situation is more tense. A number of new hotspots appear alongside old unresolved hotspots. Along with that, there are a number of complicated issues arising within ASEAN itself. Vietnam and Malaysia have had quite effective sharing and coordination in dealing with these problems. However, the two countries need to continue to strengthen ties even more closely in the context of the new situation.

(v) It is of great help in ensuring the nation-people interests. Ensuring national interests is a top requirement in promoting relations with any country or organization. Both Vietnam and Malaysia have thoroughly embraced this spirit through specific cooperative actions over the past time on the basis of closely following the content of joint statements, action plans and cooperative agreements. Effectiveness is brought about in each specific field of cooperation, from politics - diplomacy, defense - security or trade - investment. This is the cross-cutting orientation that Vietnam and Malaysia need to continue to promote in the coming years.

There continues to be prospects of sustainable development in spite of the many difficulties and challenges.

The international and regional situation in the coming time will continue to have rapid fluctuations, with multi-dimensional impact on the relationship between Vietnam and Malaysia. The emerging issue is the competition between big countries in all aspects of international life in the Asia-Pacific region in general and Southeast Asia in particular. ASEAN maintains its “central” role but faces the challenge of unity and solidarity. Due to the strong pull from major countries, there is also a conflict of interest within this bloc, which negatively affects its reputation and image.

A number of hot issues, including the East Sea issue, and Myanmar’s political crisis have persisted and become increasingly unpredictable, directly affecting the interests and national security of the parties involved. The ASEAN Forum will increasingly attract the participation of nations, including powers from outside the region.

Our Party and State are always interested in promoting strategic partnerships in general and the Vietnam - Malaysia Strategic Partnership in particular. Each of our partners shows different expressions in implementing foreign policies to contribute to ensuring their national interests and security. This is not simple, it requires the right leadership of the Party, formulating appropriate lines and policies, as well as their drastic realization by the relevant ministries, departments, branches, and localities in order to synchronously carry out and mobilize synergy in the process of promoting relations with strategic partners in the coming time.

The direction of Vietnam - Malaysia relations are basically favorable and will continue to develop rapidly, especially in the fields of trade - investment and defense - security. More diverse fields and forms of cooperation; New cooperation mechanism were established along with the promotion of the old cooperation mechanism. Political-security cooperation plays a key role, creating favorable conditions for other fields to develop, while cooperation on trade-economic has always been a bright spot.

Spanning nearly 50 years of history of established diplomatic relations, especially after the two countries signed the agreement “Joint Declaration on the framework of comprehensive cooperation in the twenty-first century” (April 2004) and followed by the “Joint Statement on the Framework of Strategic Partnership” (August 2015), the Vietnam - Malaysia strategic partnership has achieved important achievements and will certainly continue to sustainably develop in the coming time. This is the goal that the two countries are aiming for, as General Secretary Nguyen Phu Trong affirmed when receiving Malaysian Prime Minister Ismail (March 2022): “Vietnam’s consistent [foreign] policy highly appreciates and wishes to strengthen the strategic partnership with Malaysia, proposes that the two sides promote the achieved results, improve the effectiveness of the mechanisms of cooperation, including strengthening relations between political parties, promoting bilateral cooperation as well as within the framework of ASEAN and regional and international forums”(7).

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Received: November 21, 2022; Revised: November 25, 2022; Approved for publication: December 19, 2022.

Endnotes:

(1) Nguyen Hung Son: Building a strategic partnership with ASEAN members: Vietnam’s new proactive step in building the ASEAN Community, Journal of International Studies, No. 4 (87), December 2011, p.23-24.

(2) Tran Tho Quang: Strategic partnership - from theory to practice, Journal of European Studies, No. 7 (178)-2014, p.68.

(3), (4) CPV: Documents of the 12th National Congress of Deputies, National Political Publishing House, Hanoi, 2016, p.245, 153.

(5) According to the document Asia 2 Department, Ministry of Foreign Affairs Vietnam.

(6) Tran Thi Vinh: Vietnam - Malaysia Relations (1973 - 2000), Journal of Southeast Asian Studies, No. 3-2001, p.12.

(7) Thuy Linh: Bringing the Vietnam - Malaysia strategic partnership to a new level, Electronic Communist Journal, https://www.tapchicongsan.org.vn/web/ guest/hoat-ong-cua-lanh-ao-ang-nha-nuoc/-/2018/825130/dua-quan-he-doi-tac-chien-luoc-viet-nam-Malaixia-len-tam-cao-moi.aspx, accessed on 21-3-2022.